native american
Bessie Coleman was born on January 26, 1892, in Atlanta, Texas, as the tenth of thirteen children to George and Susan Coleman, who were of African American and possibly Native American heritage. It seems strange to me that a person might not know if they were partly Native American, but then those were different times. DNA information did not exist then, in fact no one remotely considered that such a thing was possible. Also, in those days, any connection to Native Americans was almost scandalous, probably because it was indicative of the kidnappings of the settlers that happened periodically…and the Indian “marriages” to some of the women they had kidnapped. Children were born of these “marriages” and sometimes the women didn’t or didn’t want to go back to the world from which they were kidnapped.
While she may not have been sure of her heritage, Bessie must have been told that she was part Native American, because that is how her life was listed in anything important. Bessie grew up working in the cotton fields, but she had a natural talent for academics, especially math, while attending a segregated one-room school in Waxahachie, Texas. At 18, she enrolled at Langston University in Oklahoma but had to leave after one term due to financial difficulties. In 1915, at 23 years old, Coleman moved to Chicago to live with her brothers. She worked as a manicurist and managed a restaurant, where hearing stories from World War I pilots sparked her interest in flying.
Of course, it would not be an easy road…this journey to becoming a pilot. Because of the times she lived in, Coleman faced both racial and gender discrimination, and it kept her out of American flight schools. Frustrated, she thought she might have to give up her dream, but she found encouragement from Robert S Abbott, founder of the Chicago Defender, and with financial backing from Abbott and banker Jesse Binga she stumbled into a future chance to study abroad. Coleman learned French and, in November 1920, she traveled to Paris to attend the Caudron Brothers School of Aviation. Flying a Nieuport 564 biplane, she earned her international pilot’s license on June 15, 1921, becoming the first African American and Native American woman to do so…shattering barriers in early aviation and inspiring future generations. She later honed her skills with advanced training from French ace pilots and visited major aircraft manufacturers like Fokker.
Coleman returned to the US in 1922 and became a barnstorming pilot, dazzling crowds with aerial stunts like loops, figure eights, and daring low dives, often at airshows honoring African American regiments, but one thing the flatly refused to do was to perform at segregated events, thereby standing up for equality. Soon, she became known as “Queen Bess” and “Brave Bessie.” She was a celebrated figure in the Black press and inspired many aspiring African American and Native American pilots. Sadly, on April 30, 1926, during a rehearsal for an airshow in Jacksonville, Florida, her poorly maintained plane went into a spin, ejecting her from about 2,000 feet and killing her instantly. She was just 34 years old.
She died in the prime of her life, with her greatest aspiration as yet unfulfilled. Although Coleman never got the chance to open her flight school, her groundbreaking achievements inspired many, from the Tuskegee Airmen to NASA astronaut Mae Jemison, who brought Coleman’s photo on a Space Shuttle mission. In 1929, the Bessie 
Coleman Aero Club was founded in her honor to promote African American aviation. Her legacy lives on through commemorative stamps, monuments, and events that celebrate her as a trailblazer for women and minorities in aviation. Bessie Coleman’s life is a powerful example of courage, determination, and breaking barriers. She is a symbol of inspiration in American history and aviation.
For a couple of reasons, I have always had an interest in the Lakota Sioux Native American tribe. The first is that I love visiting the Black Hills of South Dakota which is closely tied to the Lakota Sioux tribe. The other reason the Lakota have interested me is that my great uncle, John Spare was actually adopted by a Lakota Sioux chief named Walking Cloud, who had lost his son, and been impressed with Uncle John. So, he decided to adopt him, even though Uncle John was a grown man. I guess that if people can have dual citizenship, they can also have dual parentship…or whatever it might be called.
Now, I found another reason to be interested in the Lakota Sioux…the “Lakota Grandmas.” The term “Lakota Grandmas” refers to four Lakota women who, in 1953, founded the Lakota TB and Health Association to combat a tuberculosis outbreak among the Cheyenne River Sioux. These weren’t your typical grandmas, but rather were four Lakota grandmothers who took management of the outbreak into their own hands. These women…Phoebe Downing (Standing Rock), Eunice Larrabee (Cheyenne River), Alfreda Janis Bergin (Pine Ridge), and Irene Groneau (Sisseton-Wahpeton)…banded together to serve their tribal health communities by tackling a variety of health issues, including tuberculosis, mental health, and alcoholism. These women saw a serious need and took it upon themselves to work together for the common good of their people and their reservations. Their work contributed greatly to the development of the Community Health Representative programs under the Indian Health Service (IHS). These women were instrumental in shaping health programs within the Indian Health Service (IHS), including starting the Community Health Representative (CHR) program.
Apparently, Lakota grandmothers have long been valued as keepers of knowledge. To this day, they remain vital to their communities, playing important roles in healthcare, intergenerational care, and tackling social factors that impact health. Their role intensified in 1953, amid a tuberculosis outbreak. That was when the four Lakota grandmothers banded together for the common good. One of the diseases most commonly dealt with by the Lakota grandmas was diabetes. Intergenerational caregiving is on the rise as challenges like unemployment and violence put more pressure on families. That brought a need for grandmothers to step up in vital ways. Among the Lakota, grandmothers are deeply engaged in community advocacy, from boosting health literacy to guiding 
advance care planning, making sure their voices shape important healthcare decisions. The Native Americans have always placed great value on the elderly, and maybe that is a lesson we should all learn. Whether all of our elderly are in a position to make such astounding changes or not, these four women certainly were, and together, they made a difference.
It seems strange to me that some of the Native American Indians decided to side with the British against the fledgling United States. The British were notoriously harsher than the pilgrims and life would have been so much worse for the Indians under British rule. Nevertheless, they did just that…side with the British, bringing about the Old Northwest Indian War and the Battle of Fallen Timbers, Ohio, on August 20, 1794, was the final battle of that war. The Native Americans involved in the war were the tribes affiliated with the Northwestern Confederacy and their British allies. The fight was for control of the Northwest Territory.
The Treaty of Paris in 1783 ended the Revolutionary War but included a clause allowing the British to stay in the Northwest Territory until the United States resolved land disputes with Native American tribes, who had allied with the British. That opened up the opportunity for tribes like the Chippewa, Ottawa, Potawatomi, Shawnee, Delaware, Miami, and Wyandot to form a federation to resist United States expansion into their lands. President George Washington faced a significant defeat of Saint Clair’s troops by the Native American Federation led by Chief Little Turtle in 1791. So, he appointed General Anthony Wayne, a distinguished officer from the Revolutionary War, to lead the Legion of the United States. The 1794 Battle of Fallen Timbers ultimately became the turning point in securing U.S. control over the Old Northwest Territory.
As most of us are aware, the main threat to American security and settlers moving west of the Allegheny Mountains in the 1780s was Native American resistance. This was aside from minor domestic issues like Shay’s Rebellion in 1786. Shays’s Rebellion was an armed uprising that took place in Western Massachusetts from 1786 to 1787. It was led by Daniel Shays and other Revolutionary War veterans in response to economic hardship, particularly high taxes and aggressive debt collection practices that threatened farmers’ livelihoods. The rebellion aimed to prevent the trial and imprisonment of debt-ridden citizens and resulted in the closure of several courts. Ultimately, it highlighted the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation and contributed to the call for a stronger federal government. Spurred on by British agents from Canada, who encouraged them to attack American settlers, some British officials sought to establish an “independent” Native American state between the Ohio River and the Great Lakes, which would have simply been a puppet state under British control. Meanwhile, British troops continued occupying several forts in the Northwest Territory, deemed crucial for the fur trade, in direct violation of the treaty that ended the war with Britain. It was like they were given an inch, so they decided to take a mile. 
Of course, the federal government had no choice but to suppress the attacks on American settlers. So, they launched military expeditions into what is now Ohio. The first attack was led by Brigadier General Josiah Harmar. It included an expanded First American Regiment and 1,500 militiamen from Kentucky and Pennsylvania. Starting from Fort Washington, near present-day Cincinnati, Ohio, Harmar’s force moved north toward the Miami Villages. Almost immediately, issues arose with supplies and incorporating the militia into his forces. Deep in Indian territory, Harmar divided his troops, which weakened his army significantly. Miami Chief Little Turtle led attacks on Harmar’s forces on October 19 and 22, 1790, at the meeting of the Saint Mary and Saint Joseph Rivers. There were heavy losses to the militia and regulars from these attacks. Harmar was forced to retreat to Fort Washington, and the chaotic withdrawal only emboldened the Indian warriors further. Another expedition was launched to address the threat facing Major General Arthur Saint Clair, the governor of the Northwest Territory and a Continental Army veteran. Alongside the First American Regiment, a second infantry regiment was also formed to join the mission. Kentucky militiamen and a handful of cavalrymen brought Saint Clair’s Army to a total of about 1,400 troops. Despite being ill and unfit for command, Saint Clair began leading his army north from Fort Washington on September 17, 1791.
The march moved at a sluggish pace, and by November, the expedition had only covered 90 miles. Saint Clair further weakened his forces by sending the First Regiment to search for his overdue supply train. On November 4th, Chief Little Turtle led a surprise attack against the expedition near the upper Wabash River. The battle ended in disaster, as Saint Clair’s already weakened forces were completely overwhelmed. Over 600 men were killed, along with many civilians traveling with the group. Those wounded and left on the battlefield were brutally scalped. In desperation, Saint Clair ordered a full retreat, and the battered troops made their way back to Fort Washington. This crushing defeat highlighted the urgent need for major reforms…if the Army was to effectively defend against the Indians or any other threats to the young republic. As would naturally happen when a fledgling nation finds its Army is insufficient, Congress decided to reorganize the Army in 1792, officially approving the formation of the Legion of the United States on March 5th. The Army was divided into four sub-legions. Each of these were made up of 1,280 men and led by a brigadier general. Each sub-legion included two infantry battalions, one battalion of riflemen, one company of artillery, and one of dragoons. This structure was designed to offer greater tactical flexibility in battle. The name “Legion” also carried sentimental value, as early American leaders often compared their young republic to the Roman Republic.
President George Washington and Secretary of War Henry Knox considered several candidates to lead the reorganized Army, including Henry “Light Horse Harry” Lee and Daniel Morgan. However, it quickly became clear that Anthony Wayne was the best choice. On the same day the Army reorganization was approved, Wayne was promoted to major general and appointed as the commanding general of the Legion of the United States. 
Wayne was given ample time to train his soldiers and shape the Army under his leadership. For nearly two years, American delegates tried to negotiate with the Indians, but their efforts failed. Once again, American troops would have to confront hostile Indians, but this time, they would at least be well-prepared for the challenge.
The Rufus Buck Gang was a multiracial group of African American and Native American outlaws, notorious for a series of murders, robberies, and assaults. They were a brutal bunch, and they considered anyone fair game…men, women, and children. Headed up by Rufus Buck, the gang also consisted of Lucky Davis, Maoma July, Lewis Davis, and Sam Sampson. The men had no scruples and no respect for life. Their criminal activities took place in the Indian Territory of the Arkansas-Oklahoma area from July 30, 1895, through August 4, 1896.
Before they started their crime spree, the gang began while staying in Okmulgee, Oklahoma, by building up a small stockpile of weapons. Then, on 
July 30, 1895, they killed Deputy US Marshal John Garrett. With the lawman out of the way, they began holding up various stores and ranches in the Fort Smith area over the next two weeks. Then, the brutality began. During one robbery, a salesman named Callahan, after being robbed, was offered a chance to escape…if he could outrun the gang. Callahan was an elderly man, and they thought an easy mark, but he successfully escaped, which angered the men, so the gang killed his assistant in frustration. At least two female victims who were raped by the gang died of their injuries.
In all, the gang, Killed Deputy US Marshal John Garrett. Then on July 31, 1895, they came across a white man and his daughter in a wagon, the gang held the man at gunpoint and took the girl. They killed a black boy and beat Ben Callahan until they mistakenly believed he was dead, then took Callahan’s boots, money, and saddle. They robbed the country stores of West and J Norrberg at Orket, Oklahoma. They murdered two white women and a 14-year-old girl. Then, on August 4th, they raped a Mrs Hassen near Sapulpa, Oklahoma. Hassen and two of three other female victims of the gang…a Miss Ayres and an Indian girl 
near Sapulpa, all died; and a fourth victim, Mrs Wilson recovered from her injuries. Continuing attacks on both local settlers and Creek indiscriminately, the gang was finally captured outside Muskogee by a combined force of lawmen and Indian police of the Creek Light Horse, led by Marshal S Morton Rutherford, on August 10. While the Creek Light Horse forces wanted to hold the gang for trial, the men were brought before “Hanging” Judge Isaac Parker. The judge twice sentenced them to death, the first sentence not being carried out pending an ultimately unsuccessful appeal to the Supreme Court. They were hanged on July 1, 1896 at 1pm at Fort Smith.
I was talking with my sister-in-law, Brenda Schulenberg yesterday, and she mentioned that our niece, Machelle Moore had only had 6 times in her life that Thanksgiving had fallen on her birthday. Having a late November birthday, one might expect to have a Thanksgiving birthday more often, but because her birthday was very late in the month, that is just not the case.
Thinking back on Machelle’s life, I recall that she was born three days after Thanksgiving in 1976. Bob and I had taken our girls to visit his aunt and uncle in Kennebec, South Dakota, and the weather had turned bad. I don’t recall if we had to spend an extra day or not, but I do remember that Machelle’s mom, Debbie Cook went into labor and after about 36 hours of labor, had to have a Caesarean Section for Machelle to be delivered. It was a bit scary, but in the end, we went home to meet our new little 
niece. She was born 6 months after my Amy and 18 months after my Corrie, so the girls were always good friends.
Machelle has changed so much over the years. Not only has she grown tall like her dad, LJ Cook, but she has grown sweeter every year. Machelle has a kind heart. I don’t know anyone who doesn’t love her very much. She is a wife to her best friend, Steve Moore. They love each other so much, and are very well suited to each other. They both love to go rock hunting, and often come back with great pieces of obsidian that Steve turns into Native American tools that are beautiful…and the real shock is that Steve isn’t Native American. It’s a cool passion that Machelle and her husband share.
Machelle is also mom to two boys, Weston and Easton, who are almost grown men now. Weston has graduated from high school, and Easton is in high school. As the boys have grown, Machelle feels a little bit sad, because 
she knows that soon they will be out on their own and she will be an empty nester, like so many others who have gone before her into that new identity. For some it is difficult and for others it is easy…or at least not as hard as for others. I think Machelle will do fine, because she has a wonderful marriage. She and Steve share so many interests, including camping, rock hunting, and the company of good friends and family. Yes, I know that Machelle and Steve will have a long wonderful life together, and before she knows it, daughters-in-law and grandchildren. I’m sure she is not in a huge hurry to get there, but it is a nice dream of the future. Today is Machelle’s birthday. Happy birthday Machelle!! Have a great day!! We love you!!
As the pioneers headed west, there were various disputes over ownership of the lands they were settling into. The Native American people did not think that they should have to surrender their lands to the White Man, but it seemed that they had no choice. Still, there were some Native Americans who refused to be pushed around by the government. On August 17, 1862, violence erupted in Minnesota as desperate Dakota Indians attacked white settlements along the Minnesota River. This was a fight that the Dakota Indians would eventually lose. They were no match for the US military, and six weeks later, it was over.
The Dakota Indians were often referred to as the Sioux, which I did not know was a derogatory name derived from part of a French word meaning “little snake.” It almost makes it seem like they were talking badly about them to their face, but so they couldn’t understand it. The government treated the Dakota poorly, and the Dakota saw their hunting lands dwindling 
down, and apparently the provisions that the government promised to supply, rarely arrived. And now, to top it off, a wave of white settlers surrounded them too. To make matters worse, the summer of 1862 had been a harsh one, and cutworms had destroyed much of the crops. The Dakota were starving.
On August 17, the situation exploded when four young Dakota warriors returning from an unsuccessful hunt, stopped to steal some eggs from a white settlement. The were caught and they picked a fight with the hen’s owner. The encounter turned tragic when the Dakotas killed five members of the family. Now, the Dakota knew that they would be attacked. Dakota leaders, knew that war was at hand, so they seized the initiative. Led by Taoyateduta, also known as Little Crow, the Dakota attacked local agencies and the settlement of New 
Ulm. Over 500 white settlers lost their lives along with about 150 Dakota warriors.
President Abraham Lincoln dispatched General John Pope, fresh from his defeat at the Second Battle of Bull Run, Virginia. Pope was to organize the Military Department of the Northwest. Some of the Dakota immediately fled Minnesota for North Dakota, but more than 2,000 were rounded up and over 300 warriors were sentenced to death. President Lincoln commuted most of their sentences, but on December 26, 1862, 38 Dakota men were executed at Mankato, Minnesota. It was the largest mass execution in American history, and it was all because they were starving, and had no hope of living through that year.
When Colorado Governor John Evans was looking to win a seat in the United States Senate, he made a bold, but unwise decision to attempt to remove all Native American activity in eastern Colorado Territory. On June 24, 1864, he warned that all peaceful Indians in the region must report to the Sand Creek reservation or risk being attacked. It was truly a halfhearted offer of sanctuary, with an ulterior motive. Evans then made one bad decision after another, when he issued a second proclamation that invited white settlers to indiscriminately “kill and destroy all…hostile Indians.” At the same time, Evans began creating a temporary 100-day militia force to wage war on the Indians. He placed the new regiment under the command of Colonel John Chivington, another ambitious man who hoped to gain high political office by fighting Indians.
The Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapahoe Indians of eastern Colorado had no idea of the political maneuverings of the White Man. Although some bands had violently resisted white settlers in years past, by the autumn of 1864 many Indians were becoming more receptive to Cheyenne Chief Black Kettle’s argument that they must make peace. Black Kettle had recently returned from a visit to Washington, DC, where President Abraham Lincoln had given him a huge American flag of which Black Kettle was very proud. He had seen the vast numbers of the white people and their powerful machines. The Indians, Black Kettle argued, must make peace or be crushed.
Word of Governor Evans’ June 24 offer of sanctuary was not well received by many of the Indians, most of whom still distrusted the White Man and were unwilling to give up the fight. Only Black Kettle and a few of the 
lesser chiefs took Evans up on his offer of amnesty. Evans and Chivington were reluctant to see hostilities further abate before they had won a glorious victory, so they weren’t overjoyed that Black Kettle and his people accepted the offer. Nevertheless, they grudgingly promised Black Kettle that his people would be safe, if they came to Fort Lyon in eastern Colorado. In November 1864, the Indians reported to the fort as requested. Major Edward Wynkoop, the commanding federal officer, told Black Kettle to settle his band about 40 miles away on Sand Creek, where he promised they would be safe.
Unfortunately, Wynkoop could not control John Chivington, and John Chivington was not inclined to honor the promise of safety. By November, the 100-day enlistment of the soldiers in his Colorado militia was nearly up, and Chivington hadn’t killed any of the Indians. With his political stock falling rapidly, and he seemed almost insane in his desire to kill Indians. “I long to be wading in gore!” he is said to have proclaimed at a dinner party. In his demented state, Chivington apparently decided that it did not matter whether he killed peaceful or hostile Indians. In his mind, Black Kettle’s village on Sand Creek became a legitimate and easy target, and he assumed that no one would ever know the difference.
Chivington led 700 men, many of them drunk, in a daybreak raid on Black Kettle’s peaceful village on November 29, 1864. Most of the Cheyenne warriors were away hunting. In the horrific hours that followed, Chivington and his men brutally slaughtered 105 women and children and killed 28 men. The soldiers scalped and mutilated the corpses, carrying body parts back to display in Denver as trophies. Somehow, Black Kettle and a number of other Cheyenne managed to escape. Chivington’s treachery would not go unnoticed as he had supposed, and in the following months, the nation learned of the horror of Sand Creek. Many Americans were 
horrified and disgusted. Chivington and his soldiers had left the military and were beyond reach of a court martial. Still, Chivington’s horrific acts killed any chance of realizing his political ambitions, and he spent the rest of his inconsequential life wandering the West. Evans also paid a great price for the scandal. He was forced to resign as governor and his hopes of holding political office were dashed. Evans went on to a successful and lucrative career building and operating Colorado railroads, however. I suppose time can make people forget wrongs done, whether they should be forgotten or not.
