World War II
As with any attack, planning must be done before any action can take place. The attack on Pearl Harbor was no exception. A little more than a month, on November 5, 1941, the Combined Japanese Fleet received Top-Secret Order Number 1, stating that in just over a month, Pearl Harbor, along with Malaya (now Malaysia), the Dutch East Indies, and the Philippines, was to be bombed. There was much preparation to do, and very little time to do it. Failure would not be an option, because failure would mean death, and in fact, the battle was a planned death for the kamikaze pilots.
The problem was that the relationship between the United States and Japan had rapidly worsened following Japan’s occupation of Indochina in 1940 and the subsequent threat to the Philippines, which is an American territory. With the seizure of the Cam Ranh naval base, located roughly 800 miles from Manila, something had to be dome. In response, the United States seized all Japanese assets within its borders and shut the Panama Canal to Japanese shipping. In September 1941, President Roosevelt, with a statement prepared by British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, warned that the United States would go to war with Japan if it continued to invade territories in Southeast Asia or the South Pacific. The United States hoped, and yes even expected the Japanese to comply.
Nevertheless, despite ongoing negotiations between the United States Secretary of State and his Japanese counterpart to alleviate tensions, Hideki Tojo, the War Minister soon to become Prime Minister, was not inclined to retreat from occupied territories. Viewing the American “threat” of war as an ultimatum, he readied to initiate the first strike in a confrontation with the United States…the attack on Pearl Harbor.
We all know what happened next, but could it have been prevented? I don’t believe that Japan had any interest in preventing a war with the United States. So, it would have been up to the United States to pave the way for peace between the two countries…if that was even possible. Since I don’t believe it was possible, due to Japan’s plans, The other aspect of the question is how America might have prevented Pearl Harbor. It is likely that intelligence shortcomings and underestimation of the Japanese played a role. However, it is argued that the American military hawks and President Franklin Delano Roosevelt may have seen the attack as a necessary catalyst to persuade the nation to enter the war against the tyrannies of Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan. I don’t know for sure, and I hate to say that was exactly it, but I wonder if they expected the attack to be as bad as it ended up being.
Numerous theories speculate on whether Roosevelt, or even Great Britain’s Winston Churchill, had foreknowledge of the impending attack. However, it seems improbable. Military leaders typically do not permit such attacks due to the unpredictability of the consequences. Consider the possibilities: the attack occurring prematurely and sinking the carriers, the destruction of oil facilities, or the Japanese invasion and occupation of Hawaii. These are risks that no military leader would willingly take, regardless of their desire for a pretext to enter the war. It is probable that Roosevelt anticipated an attack, although the specifics of when and where remained uncertain.
To address the question of how America could have avoided Pearl Harbor, one must dig deeper into history, far beyond the oil embargoes of the early 1940s. It could be argued that the path to Pearl Harbor was set as early as July 8, 1853, when American Commodore Matthew Perry entered Tokyo Bay with his four ships, aiming to reestablish regular trade between Japan and the Western world. It all seemed innocent enough, but while Japan was once receptive to Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch influences. Then, with each nation attempting to introduce Western culture and religion, Japan began to have issues with them. Within a few decades, these Western powers were expelled, leaving only the Dutch with limited trading privileges through Dejima, a small man-made island in Nagasaki.
The Japanese quickly assimilated the practices of their adversaries, which included adopting a Western-trained military. The Army was advised by the French and later the Germans, while the Navy was guided by British advisors and equipped with British-built warships. Japan managed to defeat its long-standing rival China, annexing Taiwan and Korea into its gradually expanding empire. In 1904-1905, Japan, was hardly a regional power a mere fifty years prior, overwhelmed Imperial Russia in a fierce conflict. The victory followed a surprise assault on the Russian Navy at Port Arthur…something that American military planners in 1941 should have taken notice of! The initial attack aimed to incapacitate the Russians, yet the pivotal battle occurred at Tsushima Straits, where Admiral Togo Heihaciro led the Japanese fleet to obliterate eight Russian battleships.
In World War I, which followed less than ten years later, Japan joined with the Russians and aided the British in seizing the German-held Tsingtao in China. Japan also took control of the Marianas, the Caroline Islands, and the Marshall Islands. All this further fueled Japan’s ambitions concerning Chinese territories and the American-
controlled Philippines for potential expansion. Then, came “the straw that broke the camel’s back” for the Americans, and with the threat against the Philippines, the attack of Pearl Harbor was set in motion…all due to the actions taken to protect the Philippines.
Had Perry not “opened” Japan, this sequence of events might not have unfolded. This is not to imply Japan would not have modernized, but the trajectory could have been altered. Without the Emperor’s restoration, the Boshin War might not have taken place, possibly preventing the swift military reforms that followed. Of course, all this could be speculation, but the experts think it is fact.
On October 24, 1945, the United Nations Charter, adopted and signed on June 26, 1945, came into effect. The United Nations (UN) emerged from a “perceived” need for a mechanism superior to the League of Nations in arbitrating international conflicts and negotiating peace. The escalating Second World War prompted the United States, Britain, and the Soviet Union to draft the initial UN Declaration, which 26 nations signed in January 1942 as an official stance against the Axis Powers of Germany, Italy, and Japan. It all seemed like a good idea, and perhaps was drafted with good intentions, but it is my opinion that the UN has failed miserably to accomplish any of the goals it set out to achieve.
The foundational principles of the UN Charter were initially shaped during the San Francisco Conference, which began on April 25, 1945. This conference established the framework for a new international organization intended to “save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, to establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be maintained, and to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom.” The Charter further outlined two additional vital goals. They were to maintain the principles of equal rights and self-determination for all peoples…initially intended to safeguard smaller nations at risk of being overtaken by the larger Communist powers emerging after the war, and to promote international collaboration to tackle worldwide economic, social, cultural, and humanitarian issues.
Following the war’s end, the responsibility of negotiating and maintaining peace was assigned to the newly established UN Security Council, which included the United States, Great Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and China. Each member possessed veto power. Winston Churchill implored the United Nations to employ its charter to promote a new, united Europe…a unity characterized by its opposition to communist expansion in both the East and the West. Yet, given the composition of the Security Council, achieving this proved more challenging than anticipated. I suppose that the distain felt by many people, for the United Nations, could have arisen from an impossible task, but more likely it came from flawed people who placed their own agenda ahead of the real needs of the people.
The United Nations is subject to criticism for a variety of reasons, including its policies, ideology, equality of representation, administrative practices, enforcement of decisions, and perceived ideological biases. Critics often cite a lack of success within the organization, noting failures in both preventative measures and in de-escalating conflicts ranging from social disputes to full-blown wars. Additional criticisms involve accusations of antisemitism, appeasement, collusion, promotion of globalism, inaction, and the exertion of undue influence by 
powerful nations within the General Assembly, as well as corruption and misallocation of resources. In my opinion, and that of many other people, that the UN should be dissolved, or at the very least, that the United States should withdraw and expel the United Nations from this nation. While some may disagree, this is my viewpoint.
The 603 (City of Edinburgh) Squadron, part of the Royal Auxiliary Air Force (RAF), is stationed in Edinburgh, Scotland. Established on October 14, 1925, at RAF Turnhouse, it served as a day bomber unit within the Auxiliary Air Force. Initially, the squadron operated DH.9As (a British single engine biplane) and utilized Avro 504Ks (a biplane bomber) for training purposes. In March 1930, it transitioned to Wapitis (a two-seater general purpose military biplane), which were subsequently replaced by Harts (a British two-seater biplane light bomber) in February 1934. On October 24, 1938, the squadron was reclassified as a fighter unit, operating Hinds (a British light bomber) until the introduction of Gladiators (a British biplane fighter) in late March 1939. Over those years the men of 603 Squadron made many equipment transitions.
In August 1939, the squadron commenced yet another transition, this time to Spitfires (a British single-seat fighter aircraft). As the war loomed closer, the squadron shifted to full-time operations. Within two weeks of the outbreak of World War II, Brian Carbury was permanently assigned, and the squadron started receiving Spitfires, transferring its Gladiators to other squadrons throughout October.
Scotland was within the range of Nazi Germany’s long-range bombers and reconnaissance planes. The Luftwaffe primarily targeted the Royal Naval Home Fleet at Scapa Flow. The 603 Squadron, now equipped with Spitfires, was ready in time to intercept the first German air raid on the British Isles on October 16th. It succeeded in shooting down a Junkers Ju 88 bomber over the Firth of Forth, north of Port Seton…marking the first enemy aircraft downed over Great Britain since 1918 and the RAF’s initial victory in World War II. The squadron continued its defensive role in Scotland until August 27, 1940, after which it rotated to Southern England, joining Number 11 Group at RAF Hornchurch. There, it participated in the remaining months of the Battle of Britain, starting from August 27, 1940.
Two days after becoming operational in southern England, Carbury secured his first of 15½ victories (not sure how one has a half victory), ranking as the fifth highest scoring fighter ace of the battle. He received the Distinguished Flying Cross and Bar with 603 Squadron during the conflict. Air Commodore Ronald ‘Ras’ Berry achieved approximately 9 (of a final total of 14) victories at this time, while RAF Officer ‘Sheep’ Gilroy claimed more than 6 victories. Flight Lieutenant Richard Hillary, with 5 victories, was shot down on September 3rd during a skirmish with BF 109s of Jagdgeschwader 26 off Margate at 10:04am. Rescued by the Margate lifeboat, he suffered severe burns and subsequently spent three years in hospital, where he authored the book, The Last Enemy. Recent academic research, including an examination of German records, has identified 603 Squadron as the highest-scoring squadron in the Battle of Britain by its conclusion.
Upon returning to Scotland in late December, Carbury inflicted damage on a Ju 88 over Saint Abb’s Head on Christmas Day. He then departed from the squadron in January 1941 to serve as an instructor at the Central 
Flying School. By May 1941, the squadron had relocated southward to participate in sweeps over France, known as “rhubarbs,” which continued until the year’s end.
Following a period in Scotland, 603 Squadron departed in April 1942 for the Middle East, with its ground echelon arriving in early June. Simultaneously, Flight Sergeant Joe Dalley transitioned from the squadron to Photographic Reconnaissance Unit (PRU) duties, piloting a Spitfire PR from RAF Benson directly to Malta. There, he joined 69 Squadron RAF, becoming one of the four pilots dubbed the “Eyes and Ears” of the Island. The squadron’s aircraft were loaded onto the US aircraft carrier Wasp and launched towards Malta on April 20th to bolster the island’s hard-pressed defenders. After almost four months of defending Malta, the surviving pilots and planes were integrated into 229 Squadron on August 3, 1942.
By the end of June 1942, the ground echelon of 603 Squadron had relocated to Cyprus, where it operated as a servicing unit for six months before its return to Egypt. In February 1943, the arrival of Bristol Beaufighters and their crews marked the commencement of convoy patrols and escort missions along the North African coastline. August saw the initiation of sweeps over the Aegean’s German-occupied islands and areas off Greece. The squadron continued its assaults on enemy shipping until a scarcity of targets facilitated its return to the UK in December 1944.
On January 10, 1945, 603 Squadron reformed at RAF Coltishall and, in a curious twist of fate, inherited the Spitfires and some personnel of 229 Squadron RAF…the very squadron that had previously absorbed 603 Squadron at Ta’ Qali in 1942. Fighter-bomber operations commenced in February over the Netherlands and persisted until April. Subsequently, the squadron returned to its home base at Turnhouse for the concluding days of the war. The squadron was officially disbanded on August 15, 1945.
603 Squadron was reestablished as part of the Auxiliary Air Force on May 10, 1946, and started recruiting for a Spitfire squadron in June at RAF Turnhouse. The squadron received its first Spitfire in October and operated this aircraft until it transitioned to the De Havilland Vampire FB.5s in May 1951. By July, the squadron was fully equipped with the new aircraft, which it flew until the unit was disbanded on March 10, 1957.
The new 603 Squadron originated from Number 2 (City of Edinburgh) Maritime Headquarters Unit in October 1999, providing the foundation for the new 602 (City of Glasgow) Squadron RAuxAF in 2006. 603 Squadron continued to be based in Edinburgh. In 2007, to mark the 50th Anniversary of the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight, the Flight’s Supermarine Spitfire IIa, P7350, which served in 603 Squadron during the Battle of Britain, bore the squadron’s code XT-L, the same as Gerald ‘Stapme’ Stapleton’s personal aircraft, for two years.
For several years leading up to 2013, the main trade at 603 Squadron was the RAF Regiment, although the Squadron also provided support in Mission Support and Flight Operations trades. In late 2012, it was announced that the Squadron would start recruiting for the RAF Police in 2013. Consequently, the Squadron has transitioned to primarily being an RAF Police unit, while still retaining a Flight of the RAF Regiment.
Sellafield, which was formerly known as Windscale Works, was an important multi-functional nuclear site located near Seascale on the coast of Cumbria, England. As of August 2022, its primary activities are the processing and storage of nuclear waste, along with decommissioning. Historically, the facility produced nuclear power from 1956 to 2003 and reprocessed nuclear fuel from 1952 to 2022. Originally built as a Royal Ordnance Factory in 1942, the site was briefly owned by Courtaulds for rayon production in the post-World War II years. Then in 1947, the Ministry of Supply reacquired it for plutonium production, leading to the construction of the Windscale Piles and the First-Generation Reprocessing Plant, and its renaming to “Windscale Works.” Significant developments followed, including the construction of Calder Hall, the world’s first commercial nuclear power station to supply electricity to a public grid, the Magnox fuel reprocessing plant, the prototype Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor (AGR), and the Thermal Oxide Reprocessing Plant (THORP). Decommissioning has been concentrated on the Windscale Piles, Calder Hall, and various historic reprocessing and waste storage facilities.
During its “Windscale Works” years, a severe fire broke out in the core of a nuclear reactor on October 10, 1957. As a result, significant radioactive material was released into the environment on October 10-11, 1957. Windscale Works was under the operation of the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority (UKAEA) at the time. On the 15th of October, the UKAEA Chairman announced the formation of an Inquiry Committee, chaired by Sir William Penney, to investigate the incident. The Committee convened at 
Windscale Works from October 17–25th. They interviewed 37 individuals and reviewed 73 technical exhibits. They submitted their findings to the UKAEA Chairman on 26th October. These findings underpinned a UK Government White Paper (Command Paper 302), published on November 8, 1957. Oddly or perhaps criminally, the Penney Report itself remained unpublished until it was made available at The National Archives, Kew, in January 1988, basically covering up the event for decades. This event transpired when uranium metal fuel caught fire within Windscale Pile No. 1. The fire led to the release of radioactive contamination into the environment, which is estimated to have eventually caused approximately 240 cancer cases, with fatalities between 100 to 240. The incident received a level 5, on the International Nuclear Event Scale. The maximum rating is 7.
Now called Sellafield, the licensed premises span 650 acres, housing over 200 nuclear facilities and more than 1,000 buildings. It stands as the largest nuclear site in Europe, boasting the world’s most varied array of nuclear facilities on a single site. Workforce numbers fluctuate, but prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, the site 
employed around 10,000 individuals. The Central Laboratory and headquarters of the UK’s National Nuclear Laboratory are located on the premises. The site is owned by the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA), a non-departmental public body of the UK government. From 2008 to 2016, it was managed by a private consortium before control reverted to the government. Consequently, the Site Management Company, Sellafield Ltd, became a subsidiary of the NDA. The decommissioning process of the legacy facilities, which includes structures from the UK’s early efforts to develop an atomic bomb, is expected to be completed by 2120 at an estimated cost of £121 billion.
The Battle of Wake Island was a significant conflict in the Pacific theater of World War II, occurring on Wake Island. The attack began simultaneously with the assault on Pearl Harbor’s naval and air bases in Hawaii on the morning of December 8, 1941 (December 7th in Hawaii) and concluded on December 23rd with the American forces capitulating to the Empire of Japan. The battle took place on the atoll comprising Wake Island and its smaller islets, Peale and Wilkes, involving air, land, and sea forces of the Japanese Empire and the United States, with a notable presence of Marines from both nations. The Japanese forces were formidable, and the majority of the surviving Americans were transported from the island to POW camps by the Japanese. Ninety-seven were left behind to be used as forced labor. The Allies’ response involved intermittent bombing of the island, but no further land invasions occurred. This was in line with a broader Allied strategy to isolate certain Japanese-occupied islands in the South Pacific, effectively leaving them to wither in isolation.
On October 5, 1943, American naval aircraft from the USS Yorktown attacked Wake Island. On October 7, 1943, Rear Admiral Shigematsu Sakaibara, commander of the Japanese garrison on the island, orders the execution of a civilian accused of stealing, and 97 Americans POWs, claiming they were trying to make radio contact with US forces, and a civilian accused of stealing. Initially, the 97 POWs were detained to be used as forced labor. Anticipating an invasion, Sakaibara commanded their execution. They were led to the island’s northern end, blindfolded, and shot with a machine gun. One prisoner, whose name remains unknown, escaped and etched “98 US PW 5-10-43” into a large coral rock near the hastily dug mass grave. This American was later recaptured, and Sakaibara personally beheaded him with a katana. The etched message remains visible, marking a somber landmark on Wake Island to this day. The Wake Island Massacre was an outrage.
The Pacific war finally drew to a close starting in August 1945, and the Emperor of Japan announced the surrender to the Japanese people and the agreement was formally signed by September 2, 1945. On September 4, 1945, the remaining Japanese garrison surrendered to a detachment of United States Marines under the command of Brigadier General Lawson H. M. Sanderson, with the handover being officially conducted in a brief ceremony aboard the destroyer escort USS Levy. Earlier, the garrison received news that Imperial Japan’s defeat was imminent, so the mass grave was quickly exhumed, and the bones were moved to the US cemetery that had been established on Peacock Point after the invasion, with wooden crosses erected in preparation for the expected arrival of US forces. During the initial interrogations, the Japanese claimed that the remaining 98 Americans on the island were mostly killed by an American bombing raid, though some escaped and fought to the death after being cornered on the beach at the north end of Wake Island. Several Japanese officers in American custody committed suicide over the incident, leaving written statements that incriminated Sakaibara. Sakaibara and his subordinate, Lieutenant Commander Tachibana, were later sentenced 
to death after conviction for this and other war crimes. Sakaibara was executed by hanging in Guam on June 19, 1947, while Tachibana’s sentence was commuted to life in prison. The remains of the murdered civilians were exhumed and reburied at Section G of the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific, which is commonly known as Punchbowl Crater, on Honolulu.
My uncle, Lester “Jim” Wolfe was in the Army during World War II, and as such, was among those who stormed the beaches of Normandy, France on D-Day (June 6, 1944), while my dad, Allen Spencer, his future brother-in-law, was among the B-17s flying cover in the skies above. Thankfully, both of them made it home, and became the men they were destined to be. I really can’t imagine growing up without knowing my Uncle Jim. He was a great guy, with a great sense of humor. He saw a lot of things in his lifetime, and so, he always had great stories to tell. To my child’s mind, my uncle seemed very knowledgeable in things, as did my dad. It was a different era than that of my own, and they knew different things as a result. I guess that is why they always seemed so wise to me.
While he had a lot of wisdom, Uncle Jim was also a great comedian too. He was always making jokes and loved 
to make and hear people laugh. Uncle Jim was a master storyteller, the finest there was. Whenever he began his tales, we’d gather around, eyes wide with amazement. It was always a mystery whether his stories were drawn from life or were pre fiction…until the punchline came. At that moment, we’d burst into laughter, exclaiming, “Oh! Uncle Jim!” He delighted in our reactions, which brought him great amusement. And on the topic of amusement, Uncle Jim was an old hand at tickling. He’d chase and tickle us whenever we pestered him…which, of course, meant we always did. We’d scamper off, trying to escape, though we never really did. Uncle Jim’s heart was as kind as his spirit was playful.
Uncle Jim was the kind of person who would help anyone in need, whether they were neighbors, friends, or even strangers. His generosity knew no bounds, and he was always ready to offer his assistance. His love for his family was his “above all” priority. He would protect his wife and children at all costs, both in words and actions. He was utterly devoted to them. When he decided to purchase land in Washington to build his final home, he ensured there was enough space for each of his children to have a place of their own nearby. He was determined that none of them would ever be without a home. The property he chose was atop a mountain, offering some of the most stunning views during the ascent. Even in his later years, as Alzheimer’s Disease necessitated his stay in a nursing home, he maintained his happy spirit. He delighted in brightening the day of the nursing staff and 
visitors alike, often engaging in harmless “mischief” around the nurses’ station. My sisters and I continue to hold him dear in our hearts. Thoughts of him always bring smiles to our faces. Uncle Jim passed away in 2013, reuniting with his beloved wife, my Aunt Ruth, and other departed family members. We’re comforted by the belief that they’re joyfully together, and we look forward to the day we’ll all be reunited. Today marks what would have been Uncle Jim’s 103rd birthday. Happy birthday in Heaven, Uncle Jim!! We love and miss you very much!!
For a number of years, I took my dad, Allen Spencer, who was a top turret gunner and flight engineer on a B-17G during World War II, to see the vintage planes when they came into Casper, Wyoming. Included in those old B-17s was the infamous Nine-O-Nine. Dad loved them all, and it was a special time for us. We crawled through those old planes, and Dad showed me his station, as well as the others on the Flying Fortress. Dad passed away on December 12, 2007, and I think of those special outings every time I see a B-17 flying overhead. The sightings are becoming fewer and further between, sadly. It’s quickly becoming the second end of the World War II era.
The Nine-O-Nine was privately owned by the Collings Foundation and on October 2, 2019, the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress crashed at Bradley International Airport, Windsor Locks, Connecticut. Sadly, seven of the thirteen people on board were killed, and the other six, as well as one person on the ground, were injured. The precious Nine-O-Nine was destroyed by fire, with only a portion of one wing and the tail remaining. I couldn’t believe it when I heard. It was so tragic.
Before the accident, the Collings Foundation operated the aircraft under the Living History Flight Experience, an FAA program permitting vintage military aircraft owners to provide compensated rides. The Foundation’s executive director, Rob Collings, had sought amendments to permit guests to handle the aircraft’s controls, contending that the FAA’s interpretation of the program’s regulations was overly stringent.
The “living history” flight was delayed by 40 minutes due to a problem starting one of the engines. The pilot shut down the other engines and used a spray can to remove moisture before starting the flight. Departing from Bradley International Airport in Windsor Locks, Connecticut, at 9:48am local time, the aircraft was on a local flight with three crew members and ten passengers. An engine was observed sputtering and emitting smoke. At 9:50am, the pilot reported an issue with the plane’s Number 4 engine, located on the outer right wing. He instructed the crew chief, who also served as the loadmaster, to have the passengers return to their seats. Then, the pilot shut down the Number 4 engine. The control tower cleared the airspace for the aircraft to make an emergency landing on Runway 6. Approaching low, the Nine-O-Nine landed 1,000 feet before the runway, struck the Instrument Landing System (ILS) antenna array, veered right off the runway, crossed a grassy area and a taxiway, and collided with a de-icing facility at 9:54am, bursting into flames. A Connecticut Air National Guardsman, despite sustaining a broken arm and collarbone, successfully opened an escape hatch following the plane crash. Meanwhile, an airport worker, who was in the building struck by the plane, rushed to the crash site to assist in extracting injured passengers from the fiery wreckage. This individual incurred serious burns to his hands and arms and was subsequently transported to the hospital by ambulance. The pilot and co-pilot, aged 75 and 71, were among the seven fatalities. Additionally, one individual on the ground sustained injuries. The airport remained closed for three and a half hours after the incident.
According to the final report released by the NTSB on May 17, 2021, the probable cause of the crash was: “The pilot’s failure to properly manage the airplane’s configuration and airspeed after he shut down the Number 4 engine following its partial loss of power during the initial climb. Contributing to the accident was the inadequate 
maintenance of the airplane while it was on tour, which resulted in the partial loss of power to the Numbers 3 and 4 engines; the ineffective safety management system (SMS) of the Collings Foundation, which failed to identify and mitigate safety risks; and the FAA’s inadequate oversight of the Collings Foundation’s SMS.”
Typhoon Vera, also known as the Isewan Typhoon, was an extraordinarily powerful tropical cyclone that hit Japan in September 1959. It became the most intense and deadliest typhoon to ever make landfall in the country, and it remains the only one to have done so as a Category 5 equivalent storm. The typhoon caused unprecedented catastrophic damage, severely impacting the Japanese economy, which was in the midst of post-World War II recovery. Following Vera, Japan underwent significant reforms in disaster management and relief operations, establishing a new standard for handling future storms. The country is still well known for its disaster preparedness.
Typhoon Vera formed on September 20 between Guam and Chuuk State, initially moving westward before shifting to a northerly path and reaching tropical storm status the next day. The storm then took a turned westward, rapidly intensifying to peak intensity on September 23 with maximum sustained winds that made it Category 5 hurricane. Maintaining its strength, Vera veered northward and made landfall near Shionomisaki on Honshu on September 26. Influenced by atmospheric winds, the typhoon briefly entered the Sea of Japan, then recurved eastward, making a second landfall on Honshu. Crossing over land significantly weakened Vera, and 
upon reentering the North Pacific Ocean that same day, it became an extratropical cyclone on September 27, with its remnants lasting two more days.
Although Vera’s path into Japan was accurately predicted, the limited telecommunications coverage, combined with the Japanese media’s lack of urgency and the storm’s severity, significantly hindered evacuation and disaster prevention efforts. The flooding from the storm’s peripheral rainbands started affecting river basins before the typhoon made landfall. As it hit Honshu, Vera unleashed a powerful storm surge, destroying many flood defenses, flooding coastal areas, and causing ships to sink. Vera resulted in damages totaling $600 million US dollars, which was equivalent to $6.27 billion US dollars in 2023. The death toll from Vera is uncertain, but current figures suggest the typhoon caused over 5,000 deaths, ranking it among the most lethal typhoons in Japan’s history. Additionally, it injured nearly 39,000 individuals and also displaced around 1.6 million people.
Immediately after Typhoon Vera, the Japanese and American governments launched relief operations. The typhoon’s flooding led to localized outbreaks of diseases such as dysentery and tetanus. These epidemics, along 
with obstructive debris, hindered the relief process. In response to the extensive damage and casualties caused by Vera, the National Diet, which is the national legislature of Japan, enacted laws to better support the impacted areas and reduce the impact of future disasters. This led to the creation of the Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act in 1961, which laid down guidelines for disaster response in Japan, including forming the Central Disaster Prevention Council.
Very often, those we would least expect to rise to greatness, show us just how wrong we were. Grace Murray Hopper, at a very young age showed an interest in engineering. She could often be found taking household goods apart. Still, lots of kids have taken things apart, but then Grace would put them back together too. Still, her family had no idea that her curiosity would eventually gain her recognition from the highest office in the land. She was just a curious kid…right? Well, maybe not.
Hopper was born in New York City on December 9, 1906. She started out in the normal educational way, attending a preparatory school in New Jersey. Then after her high school education ended, she began her journey to greatness. She enrolled at Vassar College. After graduating with her Bachelor’s degree, Hopper went to Yale University, where she earned her Master’s degree and PhD in Mathematics. The she went on to teach at Vassar College.
So, in 1943, Hopper resigned her position at Vassar to join the Navy WAVES (Women Accepted for Voluntary Emergency Service). She felt a higher calling. In 1944, she was commissioned as a Lieutenant (Junior Grade) and assigned to the Bureau of Ordnance Computation Project at Harvard University. She was on her way to that greatness. Her team worked on and produced an early prototype of the electronic computer, called the Mark I. She also wrote a 500-page Manual of Operations for the Automatic Sequence-Controlled Calculator, outlining the fundamental operating principles of computing machines. It was also Hopper that came up with the term “bug” to describe a computer malfunction. We all know that term these days.
When World War II was over Hopper went on to become a research fellow on the Harvard faculty, and in 1949, 
she joined the Eckert-Mauchly Corporation, so she could continue her pioneering work on computer technology. When you see things like UNIVAC, the first all-electronic digital computer, think of Hopper. She also invented the first computer compiler, a program that translates written instructions into codes that computers read directly. The work she did on the compiler led her to co-develop the COBOL, which was one of the earliest standardized computer languages. COBOL allows computers to respond to words in addition to numbers. It was an important step into a new era. Along with her work on computers and technical innovation, Hopper also lectured widely on computers, giving up to 300 lectures per year. She saw a world where computers were mainstream. In fact, she predicted that computers would one day be small enough to fit on a desk and people who were not professional programmers would use them in their everyday life. As we all know, that is exactly what has come to pass.
While her time of active service to her country was behind her, Hopper retained her affiliation with the Naval Reserve throughout her latter career. Moving up, she attained the rank of Commander by 1966. Then, as happens in the reserves sometimes, Hopper was called back to active duty in 1967. She was assigned to the Chief of Naval Operations’ staff as Director of the Navy Programming Languages Group. Hopper continued to move up the ranks, reaching the rank of Captain in 1973, Commodore in 1983, and Rear Admiral in 1985. She 
basically had two great careers. In 1987, she was awarded the Defense Distinguished Service Medal, the highest decoration given to those who did not participate in combat. It was a moment to be very proud of.
While her military career had been amazing, her work with computers wasn’t anything to make light of either. She not only gained national attention, but she was recognized internationally for her work with computers. In 1973, Hopper was named a distinguished fellow of the British Computer Society. At that time, she was the first and only woman to hold the title. Hopper retired, but she couldn’t really retire, so she returned to the classroom, where she taught and inspired students until her death on January 1st, 1992. Throughout her life, Hopper had many career accomplishments, but she later said that her greatest joy came from teaching. In 2016, Hopper was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Her body is interred at Arlington National Cemetery.
Understandably, the size of the various armies has grown along with human civilization. It is estimated that nearly 28 million armed forces personnel stand at the ready globally in this present day, according to the London-based International Institute for Strategic Studies. Of course, peacetime armies would likely be smaller than wartime armies. World War II saw the most soldiers ever to be amassed…with about 70 million soldiers. Approximately 42 million of those soldiers were from the United States, the Soviet Union, Germany, and Japan. These nations armies and related services were four of the largest ever rallied to the battlefield. The largest three were the United States (12,209,000 troops in August 1945), the German Reich (12,070,000 troops in June 1944), and the Soviet Union (11,000,000 troops in June 1943). Those numbers are staggering to think about.
As is expected in a world war, many soldiers are needed. So, the World War II army of the US became the biggest army in history. Citizens of the United States are notorious for patriotism, when we have been attacked. It is like waking a sleeping giant, and we will retaliate with a vengeance. Due in part to that surge of American patriotism and also because of conscription (the state-mandated enlistment of people in a national service, 
mainly a military service), the US Army numbered 12,209,000 soldiers by the end of the war in 1945. It is little surprise that the Japanese found themselves surrendering to the United States on this day, September 2, 1945. of course, the use of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, left little doubt that the Americans not only had the atomic bomb, but we would us it. Basically, their choices were to stay in the fight and die or surrender. They chose the latter, and the rest is history.
In order to determine which of the armies were the largest in history, 24/7 Wall Street reviewed a list of military superpowers from Business Insider. These armies were ranked based on the total number of troops that were serving a country or empire at the point when the army was at its largest. Without doubt, the United States was, and remains to this day, the nation with the largest army in history. Over the years, the armed forces of the United States have been larger and smaller, depending on the need at the time, the administration 
in charge, and since the draft was discontinued, the number of people who chose to join up to serve their country and to qualify for the GI Bill so that they can get free college. No matter how they got in the service, or how long they stayed, I am very proud of all of our soldiers over the many years of this nation…and I thank them for their service. On this day, the largest army in history accepted the surrender of the Japanese, who had once had the nerve to attack us on our own soil. That was their biggest mistake ever.
